The Power of the Mamluks and Il-Khanates Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Power of the Mamluks and Il-Khanates - Essay Example The Il-Khanates, on the other hand, achieved power by giving their subordination to the main Kahn, Kublai, and the main empire, thus ensuring the support of a successful ally. Because they were originally not a Muslim culture, they were often attacked by the Islamic states surrounding them. Eventually, after the converted to Islam, they were able to solidify their faith and gain acceptance. Thus, both clans were able to earn power through their religion, although through different means. It's important to revisit the development of these two empires in order to see how their power bases were increased by their acceptance into Islam. First, it is important to revisit the original Mongol invasions. Something different happened after the Mongols had invaded a few Islamic empires; eventually, the Mongols were to become Muslim themselves. This was to play an important role in the development of Islam within the Il-Khanate. The invasions of Central Asia and Russia by the Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde did not have the negative impacts on the native Islamic faith that the Mongol invasion of Iraq and Persia both had. Even though the Mongols defeated the Islamic states, the Muslim faith did prevail, and the Mongols themselves, although the invaders, did, for the most part, convert to Islam. However, the Mongol conquering of Islam's heartland did result in some major changes for the religion. By conquering and disemboweling the current Islamic dynasties, the Mongols in stilled new ones, thus setting a new era for the religion. This new era would allow both the Il-Khans and the Mamluk to achieve power through Islam, although this power would not be implemented until a little later in history. In order to understand how this process came about, it is important to revisit the history regarding the Mongol conquering of Islam. The fighting in Asia began in the 13th century with Genghis Khan, who raided Persia and conquered several cities up until his death. By 1237, the Mongols were outside of Bagdhad, the center of the Abbasid caliphate. When the Great Kahn Mongke was elected in 1251, the decision to attack the Abbasid caliphate was formed. Mongke did not like that Islamic people worshipped a man who they seemed to view as even above the Khan. Thus, the Mongols attacked the capital, and came out victorious (Nichoole 82). Then, Mongke gave instructions to attack the caliphate only if it decided not to surrender. Of course, the caliphate did not, and they were largely unprepared to do battle with fighters as whorled-renowned as the Mongols. They had a large force, but were not as well trained as the Mongols. Another problem that emerged in the Islamic faction was the age-old battle between Sunni and Shiite, and the fact that the caliphate was a Sunni meant that many Shiites went over to the Mongol side, thinking they would regain power if they did saw. Also, many Christians joined the side of the Mongols, seeing the Mongols as possible saviors from the fate of Islam. Some of the Mongol army was, in fact, Christian, so this is perhaps one of the reasons why they were able to gather so much support. Many Mongol soldiers were careful not to destroy Christian churches and symbols, and this fact endeared the army to the

Jaguar Land Rover plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Jaguar Land Rover plc - Essay Example JLR has managed to capture markets in North America, UK, Europe and China. JLR has a large sales and distribution network. Jaguar and Land Rover compete in 101 and 174 respectively. Its large distribution network comprises of 18 National Sales Companies, 61 export partners, 83 importers and 2,241 franchise dealers. (JAGUAR LAND ROVER PLC. 2011; BANERJEE, B. 2008) Financial Results: JLR Plc has shown improvement in its financial results over the years. In 2008 when it was acquired it was a loss making company, with the improvement in technology, cost cutting strategies, increased volume, product and market mix and favorable exchange movements Tata Motors has managed to make JLR Plc a profitable business for the group. In 2011, due to its expansion in new markets of China and Russia where demand of premium cars was high, helped improve the company’s performance. An increase in revenue- retail and wholesale both, earning before interest, tax, depreciation and amortization (EBITDA ) and net income have also been recorded in 2011 as compared to previous financial years due to efforts made in development of new products, entering new markets and resulting increase in volumes, decrease in costs and better working capital management. (JAGUAR LAND ROVER PLC. 2011; BANERJEE, B. ... Information could be required about ROI, RI, payback periods of a product etc. Mangers require financial information like revenue and costs to determine profit. In this analysis cost of goods sold is involved which is closely related to inventory management that is an important aspect of management’s work. In an automobile business like JLR inventory management and valuation (completed products and work in progress) is the key to success, holding large inventory increases cost or keeping less inventory results in stock outs, both effecting customers. (DRURY, C., & DRURY, C. 2005) On the other hand JLR managers need information to take routine decisions and also strategic long term decisions. Information is required relating to profitability to know which products to retain and which should be abandoned. Cost information is crucial aspect of the business too. Based on this information managers take decisions about company’s cost cutting strategies and enables them to com pete in highly competitive markets. (DRURY, C., & DRURY, C. 2005) Activity Based Costing: Cost information and its analysis is an important aspect of any business to gain a competitive edge over other business. The breakup of costs and easy, fairer allocation of costs incurred can provide a true picture about the profitability of the products. In automotive business like JR Plc, a large portion of costs are incurred in administrative activities which are difficult to apportion directly to the products. ABC can change the way organization measure their performance and view their performance. (ANDERSON, S. W., & YOUNG, S. M. 2001) Data collection and employee

English Language Varieties Essay Example for Free

English Language Varieties Essay English has spread rapidly, even since independence, either as a first language or as a medium of education for non-native speakers (Platt and Weber, 2002). The actual range of varieties of English is much greater than is found in the British Isles. On the one hand we can speak of an acrolect or high status variety, and on the other a basilect or low status variety, with the mesolect occupying the intermediate position. These terms are usually descriptive of what is known as a post-creole continuum—that is the range of non-discrete varieties in a post-colonial situation ranging from the acrolect, which is generally very close to the standard language of the colonial power, through to the basilect, which structurally resembles a creole. It is sufficient here to characterise a creole as a mixed language, resulting historically from contact between speakers of different and mutually unintelligible languages. Creoles are usually associated with colonial situations and are generally assigned a very low social status. Basilectal speakers, who occupy the lowest position in a post-creole continuum, are often quite unintelligible to speakers of the acrolect. All speakers occupy a range on this acrolect—basilect continuum, which correlates closely with their social status, shifting along it according to social context in much the same way as British speakers manipulate linguistic variables. Of course, the extent of linguistic difference is much greater. Such continua have been described in Jamaica by De Camp (2001) and in Guyana by Bickerton (1995), and it is likely, we should note, that these studies will be of increasing relevance to an understanding of the sociolinguistic structure of ethnic minority communities in Britain. A detailed account of the structure and function of pidgins and creoles is not directly relevant here, but interested readers are referred to Todd (2000) for an introductory account of the social, political and linguistic issues involved. Although respectable Victorians were already reacting strongly against the prescriptive attitudes of the eighteenth century, the most extreme anti-prescriptive statements, as far as we know, are those made by some members of the ‘American structuralist’ school of linguistics. Bloomfield (1993:22) felt that discovering why ain’t is considered bad and am not good is not a fundamental question in linguistics, and he thought it strange that ‘people without linguistic training’ should devote ‘a great deal of effort to futile discussions of this topic’. Bloomfield was certainly implying that the study of prescriptivism was not of central interest to linguistics; he was thereby limiting the field of linguistics to a descriptive study of form and system in language which takes relatively little account of language as a social phenomenon. Some of Bloomfield’s followers have gone further than this and have attacked ‘unscientific’ approaches to language with missionary zeal. C. C. Fries (1997) seems to have equated traditional school grammar with prescription (which was by definition ‘bad’ and ‘unscientific’ in the view of structural linguists of the time), and in his book on English syntax he went so far as to even reject traditional linguistic terms such as ‘noun’, ‘verb’ and ‘adjective’. Fries’s work was directed towards the educational system at the ordinary consumer. Anxious to assure all his readers that their use of language was just as good as that of anyone else, he proclaimed that there is no such thing as good or bad, correct or incorrect, grammatical or ungrammatical, in language. English in Western Europe and America Although linguistic scholars would certainly dispute the details of this pronouncement, they have continued (for the most part) to assert or assume that their discipline is descriptive and theoretical and that they do not deal in prescription. In Western Europe and America most theoretical linguists would still affirm that all forms of language are in principle equal. As Hudson (2002:191) has put it: Linguists would claim that if they were simply shown the grammars of two different varieties, one with high and the other with low prestige, they could not tell which was which, any more than they could predict the skin colour of those who speak the two varieties. Although some evidence from work by social psychologists (Giles et al. , 2000) lends some support to Hudson’s point, we do not, in fact, know whether standard languages can be conclusively shown to have no purely linguistic characteristics that differentiate them from non-standard forms of language (the matter has not really been investigated). It appears to be an article of faith at the moment that judgments evaluating differences between standard and non-standard varieties are always socially conditioned and never purely linguistic. However, we shall later suggest that the process of language standardisation involves the suppression of optional variability in language and that, as a consequence, non-standard varieties can be observed to permit more variability than standard ones (e. g. in pronunciations of particular words). Thus, there may be one sense at least in which the linguistic characteristics of non-standard varieties differ from those of ‘standards’. Standard English: UK Variety In the UK, one vehement critic of the supposed malign influence of linguistics on English language teaching is John Honey (1997-2003). He has named an array of linguistic scholars (including—astonishingly—Noam Chomsky, who has never been concerned with educational or social issues), as encouraging a neglect of Standard English teaching in schools. This is an entirely false claim. It is true that there has been some opposition to the teaching of English grammar, but in our experience this has arisen mainly from the preference of lecturers for literature teaching. Far from discouraging ‘grammar’, university linguists have been closely involved in maintaining and encouraging its teaching. No one has ever opposed the teaching of standard English, and many of those named by Honey as ‘enemies’ of standard English have devoted much of their careers to teaching it—training students to write clear and correct standard English. Experienced teachers will not take kindly to an attack that simply appears to them as ignorant, presumptuous and pointlessly offensive. The linguist’s academic interest in the human capacity to learn and use language is not a threat to the teaching of Standard English, and it can be a great benefit. It does not follow from the educational necessity to focus on the standard that we should neglect to examine and explain the different norms and conventions of speech and writing, or that we should fail to acknowledge that standardised usage is most fully achieved in writing. Nor does it follow that we should neglect the fact that non-standard spoken vernaculars have grammars of their own. To investigate the structure of language varieties is an intellectual requirement that cannot be compromised, and which in no way contradicts the importance of the teaching of literacy in a standard language. Amongst other things, research on real language in use can help us to clarify and understand what standard English actually is and appreciate more exactly what its roles and functions are. We will not improve practical language teaching by ignoring such matters or by maligning those who study conversational speech and non-standard vernaculars as ‘enemies of standard English’. The authors of elementary books on linguistics, however, have usually been anxious to dissociate their account of the subject from that of traditional handbooks of correctness. As we have seen they usually dismiss prescription routinely, and assert that linguistics is descriptive. Their general point—that, if one is to study the nature of language objectively, one cannot make prior value-judgments—is frequently misunderstood, and it has sometimes called forth splenetic and misinformed denunciations of linguistics as a whole. One example amongst many is Simon (2002). In an essay entitled ‘The Corruption of English’ (2002), Simon blames structural linguistics and literary structuralists for an alleged decline in language use and for permissive attitudes to language: ‘What this is, masquerading under the euphemism â€Å"descriptive linguistics†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦is a benighted and despicable catering to mass ignorance under the supposed aegis of democracy. ’ His essay is outspoken and full of emotive language (‘pseudoscientific mumbo jumbo’, ‘rock-bottom illiteracy’, ‘barbarians’, ‘vandalism’, etc. ), and it betrays ignorance of what linguistics is about. To Simon, linguists are almost equated with some menace that is threatening Western (i. e. American) civilisation from outside. It is unfortunate that misunderstandings and misapplications of the American structural linguists’ teaching should have made it seem reasonable for anyone to write in this ignorant way. As many people still interpret descriptive linguistics as inimical to standards of usage, there has clearly been some failure of communication between linguistic scholars and the general public. One reason for this is that ‘mainstream’ linguistics has concentrated more on the abstract and formal properties of language than on language in its social context. Bloomfield (1993), as we saw above, considered that prescription was irrelevant to linguistics as a ‘science’. Yet some linguists have been directly interested in prescription. Haas (2002), for example, has pointed out that prescription ‘is an integral part of the life of language’. By refusing to be interested in prescription, he adds: ‘linguists only ensure that every enterprise of linguistic planning will be dominated by ignorant enthusiasts and incompetent pedants’ (Haas, 2002:3). Since Haas made these comments, some social and educational linguists have been very active in commenting on public attitudes and educational policies, and some have represented the subject on advisory committees. A general linguist, R. A. Hudson, is responsible for the Language Workbooks series, published by Routledge. Several relevant books on language variation have appeared, and linguistic correctness was the topic of the 1996 BBC Reith Lectures, delivered by Jean Aitchison (1998). In the USA much of the interest in language differences has been driven by public concern about the language of ethnic minorities. In 1997, the Linguistic Society of America published a document inspired by a controversy about ‘Ebonics’ (African American Vernacular English), which was recognised by the Oakland (California) School Board as a legitimate form of language. It ended with the following comments: There is evidence from Sweden, the US, and other countries that speakers of other varieties can be aided in their learning of the standard variety by pedagogical approaches which recognize the legitimacy of other varieties of a language. From this perspective, the Oakland School Board’s decision to recognize the vernacular of African American students in teaching them Standard English is linguistically and pedagogically sound.

The Dynamics Of Vertical And Horizontal Diversity Business Essay

The Dynamics Of Vertical And Horizontal Diversity Business Essay Malcolm X once exclaimed, When White America catches a cold, Black America catches pneumonia. Malcolm and Martin seldom agreed but on this they did. As for me, this statement, I have always understood but had not seen firsthand. Nearing the end of the Bush Administration, America went into recession. My job area of coverage increased as we layed off other engineers. As I would drive a boring stretch of Interstate 26, a particular truck stop was my favorite for refueling. It had spacious sanitary restrooms, a well stocked coffee bistro, and a McDonalds restaurant for my milk shake fix. Remarkably, the employees were over 60% black. Now keep in mind a small town mostly African American is nearby. Within six months of the downturn, the staff dwindled to about 30% black. After a year, the stop was devoid of blacks and Hispanics. I saw firsthand what it looked liked when America had a cold. That small black town had the flu. Unaware why the staffing change actually took place, it is plain to see that the employers did not see diversity as a positive aspect of the business. In fact, many people dont see diversity as a positive. A recent poll of 427 working Americans by Workplace Options found that less than half of them believe that diversity makes their products of services better. (Hastings, Poll: Many Employees Dont Embrace Diversity, 2012) While small business can escape laws that mandate diversity, Organizations must maintain even in time of decline. Over the next few pages, I will provide an introspective into Organizational Diversity. Organizational Diversity Defined as the differences in human characteristics in an organization; Organizational Diversity comes with mixed bag of perspectives, opinions, rules, ordinances, laws, and thoughts. The Human Resource manager finds him or herself in a key organizational position from diversity training to compliance. In another of study 511 executives on the International Executive Panel, when asked to select the benefits of diversity they had experienced personally, most agree on they cited: broadens horizon, stimulates discussions, creates individual respect, stimulates leaning, and Increases decision making. (Hastings, Awareness of Biases Helps Leaders Adapt to Diversity, 2012) Essential Perspectives To streamline the narrative, I will speak of organizational diversity from the view of our text, Human Resource Management (Essential Perspectives). Tangible indicators of diversity are race, ethnicity, origin, age, gender, marital status, family status, sexual orientation, disability and religion. (Mathis Jackson, 2012) Our text subtitled Essential Perspectives, highlights four organizational approaches to diversity: 1. Ignore diversity 2. Begin process and deal with adversity 3. Build acceptance of diversity 4. Solve diversity issues and create an inclusive culture. First, the ignore diversity approach, known in South Carolina as the Good ole boy system is rooted in protection of the status quo. Not unlike the truck stop who switched to this method during recession, organizations are subject to legal issues when using this approach. A second approach to diversity, organizations begin the process of dealing with diversity by focusing on the protected classes. These protected classes line up with the tangible indicators introduced earlier. This approach is seen to enhance internal problem solving, by practice HR provides diversity training and brings organizations in compliance with affirmative action. In the third approach to diversity, organizations build acceptance to diversity. This is when diversity starts to pay off and conflicts are reduced. Top and middle management buy in is pivotal at this time. Lastly, the fourth approach to diversity is to solve diversity issues and create inclusive culture. Now diversity is approached proactively and business results improve. As an organization works upward through each approach it reflects positively on the bottom line. Our most oft thought of diversity class is race and ethnicity. In this time of recession many are working longer, which brings generational diversity to the forefront. Many older white men are feeling what women have felt for years. Yes, gender diversity and generational diversity are two very relevant issues. Thus, diversity training must be updated and expanded for todays realities, not just focusing on race and ethnicity. Additional components of diversity training now are legal awareness, cultural awareness, and sensitivity training. While subtitled Essential Perspectives our text still left me wanting; in need for a deeper perspective. I examined two sources our authors used in developing the text. First source is The Rich Get Richer and next The Dynamics of Vertical and Horizontal Diversity. The Rich Get Richer The Rich Get Richer: Predicting Participation in Voluntary Diversity Training takes a step deeper into organizational diversity training to glimpse at who participates when it is voluntary. Whether the organization adopts a narrow (race and gender) or broad (multiple diversity dimensions) focus, diversity training is designed to help employees take a positive, proactive approach toward diversity that goes beyond past non-discrimination. (Kulik, Pepper, Roberson, Parker, 2007). While most organizations have training as part of their diversity initiative, it is oft voluntary. Companies feel uneasy dictating some employees participate, so they just post it on the company web site or make it a union responsibility. Some of the employees see diversity and equal opportunity training as offering an unfair advantage to the others, not just leveling the playing field. (Kulik, Pepper, Roberson, Parker, 2007) The question is, who would participate in voluntary diversity training? The journal delved where the text would not go, if voluntary how does an organization influence employees to participate, especially if it is truly seen as a positive. These positives can only be realized in voluntary diversity training initiatives if the training attracts the employees in the most need of training. (Kulik, Pepper, Roberson, Parker, 2007). The author strongly suggested organizations can accomplish this by adjoining diversity training to other corporate training. In all candor, this problem is experienced in other training areas such as safety or ethics, but organizations are more comfortable in mandating them, perhaps because they do not upset the good ole boy system. Nevertheless, requiring participation in diversity training sends a clear and direct signal that it is important. (Kulik, Pepper, Roberson, Parker, 2007) The Dynamics of Vertical and Horizontal Diversity I choose two sources cited in our text to move deeper into the mind of the author as the text was written. The first provided a look at diversity training. Next, The Dynamics of Vertical and Horizontal Diversity introduced the concepts of vertical and horizontal diversity. Vertical diversity evaluates differences as superior or inferior; while, horizontal diversity treats difference as variation. (Awbrey, 2007) Before, we addressed voluntary diversity training, now lets consider the ongoing importance of diversity management. Long past the civil rights period of Malcolm and Martin, vertical diversity, difference as superior or inferior, continues in American society and organizations. It is now more subtle, some even say it does not exist. The glass ceiling is real and effects women in greater numbers. How to achieve organizational diversity with this prejudice undercurrent? The historical contexts of the African American civil rights movement and of womens liberation serve as backgr ound to illustrate how the elements of difference, pride, and potential space have influenced the unfolding of vertical paradigms of assimilation and separatism in the United States. (Awbrey, 2007) Assimilation and separation are results of vertical diversity. Assimilation or bleeding in is the killer of diversity. Organizations at times push for assimilation everyone must look and sound the same. How many bank tellers have you seen with dreadlocks? Separation is another reducer of diversity. During the wave of the womens movement, women began to drop their desire to assimilate into a male-constructed public world. (Awbrey, 2007) Horizontal diversity, view of diversity as a variation, allows the person to engage in inquiry to lessen uncertainty rather than making snap judgments and using stereotypes to categorize the other. (Awbrey, 2007) Horizontal diversity fosters integration and learning, which allows employees to contribute talents and abilities to the organization. HR now must go beyond just diversity training and implementing team development with horizontal diversity. Research Last I will go outside our text and its sources to merge some independent research. Our question, Does organizational diversity truly have an impact on the bottom line? I went to the HR compliance library to find the answer. According to a 2001 survey of 121 HR professionals by the Society for Human Resource Management and Fortune magazine, top companies say diversity initiatives have a direct impact on the bottom line and help an organization keep a competitive edge. (HR Compliance Library, 2013) The research found that diversity programs do improve corporate culture. Some diversity initiatives cited are recruiting, cultural events, orientation, and bilingual training. Some leading diversity practices for a successful organization are top leadership commitment, succession planning, diversity training, and diversity as part of an organizations strategic plan. (HR Compliance Library, 2013) Conclusion Defined as the differences in human characteristics in an organization; Organizational Diversity is a mixed bag of perspectives, opinions, rules, ordinances, laws, and thoughts. The human resource manager finds him or herself in a key organizational position from diversity training to compliance. As a deep dive into our text, I examined two sources cited by the author. The sources covered diversity training and the dynamics of horizontal and vertical diversity. Diversity presents opportunities in organizations providing a broader spectrum of knowledge and points of view. One fact boomers, generation-Xers, and millennials can agree on is, going forward organizational diversity at surface and deep level is the new normal.

Biosensors Development for Hydrogen Peroxide Detection

Biosensors Development for Hydrogen Peroxide Detection An approach towards clinical diagnosis. 1. Introduction: The molecular oxygen is the basic source of energy for aerobic systems. Its consumption by the living systems produces the radical such as superoxide anion (O2). This is a highly reactive toxic radical and is implicated in numerous pathologies. The toxicity of the triplet oxygen is prevented by the involvement of enzymes. A real paradox is that hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ion have to be present in the living systems but their concentrations have to be controlled precisely so that they persist only for a short period in cells. Hydrogen peroxide belongs to a class of non-radicals reactive oxygen species [1, 2]. It is an important intermediate species in many biological and environmental processes. Moreover, H2O2 which is known as a cell killer due to its oxidizing power is required as a substrate for many enzymes. It has been shown to be present in the atmospheric and hydrospheric environments [3, 4]. H2O2 is a major reactive oxygen species in living organisms, better known for its cytotoxic effects and it also plays an important role as a second messenger in cellular signal transduction. Oxidative damages resulting from the cellular imbalance of H2O2 and other reactive oxygen species are related to aging and severe human diseases such as cancers and cardiovascular disorders. [5, 6] Furthermore, H2O2 is one of the products of reactions mediated by almost all oxidases. [7] H2O2 is generated in response to various stimuli, including cytokines and growth factors and is also involved in regulating diverse biolo gical processes from immune cell activation and vascular remodeling in mammals [8] to stomatal closure and root growth in plants[9]. In unicellular organisms an important response to the increased levels of H2O2 is the increased production of antioxidants and repair proteins to allow adaptation to these oxidative conditions[10]. Most biological sources of H2O2 involve in the spontaneous or catalytic breakdown of superoxide anions, produced by the partial reduction of oxygen during aerobic respiration and following the exposure of cells to a variety of physical, chemical and biological agents. As for example, activation of NADPH oxidase complexes generate superoxide and hence the H2O2. 2. A brief outlook of the hydrogen peroxide assays Unlike other reactive oxygen species H2O2 (a mild reducing and oxidizing agent) needs an initiator for the activation by the transitional metal or enzymes. This robust chemical characteristic of H2O2 made the assay rather difficult in the quantification compared to its other reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, peroxyl radical, and such others. Methods useful for its assay include ultra-violet, infrared, Raman scattering, ESR, electro analytical techniques, metal-H2O2 complexes, enzyme mediated reactions, nanotechnogy, flow injection analysis, and biosensors. 2.1 Analytical methods based on the physical properties Numerous methods have been reported in the literature for the quantification of H2O2 based on its physical properties. These include electrochemical, optical thermal, ultrasonic, chromatographic methods and mass spectra [11]. The analytical methods based on its physical properties are rather restricted due to its relatively poor robustness and sensitivity for biomedical application. Methods assessible for the enzyme assay techniques include Synthetic labeled substrates including fluorogenic and chromogenic substrates Isotopically labeled substrates Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) substrates Substrates with fluorescent labels with indirect detection Electrochemical assays Chemiluminiscence assays Bioluminescent assays Mass spectroscopy Nanotechnology Enzyme immobilization techniques For the development of analytical techniques and methods for the hydrogen peroxide assays, analytical chemists play a crucial role as they are mainly devoted to the development of methodologies or have been too much concerned with the analysis of isolated targeted material. 2.2 Quantification based on the electrochemical biosensor The modern concept of biosensors is a rapidly expanding field of instruments to determine the concentration of substances and other parameters of biological interest since the invention by Clark and lyons in 1962. Electrochemical biosensors are the analytical devices that detect biochemical and physiological changes. Early techniques of biosensors in the analysis of chemical and biological species involved reactions that took place in a solution in addition to catalysts and samples. In recent years, however the biosensor techniques have provided alternative systems that allowed the reactions without reagents to take place at a surface of an electrode. The immobilization techniques include physical adsorption, cross-linking, entrapment, covalent-bond or sometimes combination of all the techniques. International Status As it has been mentioned in the introduction of the proposal, a tremendous burst in research activities in the field of hydrogen peroxide measurement has increased over understanding about its role. Over the last few years, studies have suggested that oxidative stress plays a role in the regulation of hematopoietic cell homeostasis.[12] The generation of H2O2 is increased in response to various stresses, in which previous exposure to one stress can induce tolerance of subsequent exposure to the same or different stresses. [13] Oxidative stress is an important cause of cell damage associated with the initiation of many diseases.[14] It is also investigated that tissue injury due to free radical liberated by H2O2 during oxidative stress is the heart of periodontal diseases. [15] Many research papers describes that high levels of H2O2 is cytotoxic to a wide range of animal, plant and bacterial cells. Hydrogen peroxide has the ability to penetrate the cell membrane and form the hydroxyl radical OH. which is capable of causing high levels of DNA damage. [16] Evidences show that increase in the cellular levels of H2O2 play a major role directly or indirectly in sensitizing cancer cells to H2O2-induced cell death. Indeed, there is a growing literature showing that H2O2 can be used as an inter- and intra-cellular signalling molecule. [17] National status: A tremendous growth is taking place in developing hydrogen peroxide biosensor all over the world and also in India. As per the Indian scenario, different national research institutes and private companies have been working in this field. NPL, CEERI Pilani, IISC, IIT, Bengal Engineering and Science University and many more national institutes are working on this. Many of the private sectors like Biosensor Interventional technologies (India) Pvt. Ltd, Clearly a major obstacles in studying the roles of hydrogen peroxide has been the lack of widely available specific tools and methodologies Objectives The whole idea of the project is to develop a new ultrasensitive reagent, versatile, non-carcinogenic easily available so that there are no earlier reports. The proposal of new reagents for enzyme peroxidase based hydrogen peroxide assay. Principal investigator is interested to have an extensive catch over the kinetic assay by developing new kinetic equations by controlling different parameters such as pH, effect of co-substrate concentration etc., (iv) Methodology: The simple oxidative reaction of the H2O2 in the presence of enzyme can be explored by converting the co-substrates into optically detectable product. This includes a variety of oxidizing reagents based on the oxidative property of metals such as Co(II), Fe(II), Cu(II), and other metal ion catalysts. The assay based on simple oxidation comprises the optical methods such as spectrophotometry, spectroflurimetry, and chemiluminiscence. To overcome the relatively poor sensitivity and selectivity of the optical methods described below, peroxidase or metal porphyrins can be introduced to enhance the sensitivity of specific H2O2 detection. It is based on the specific H2O2 reaction with hydrogen donors on the catalysis of peroxidase or metal porphyrins, instead of oxidizing reagents. These optical methods of analysis are sensitive to the extent of micromolar and nanomolar H2O2 concentrations. As one of the most sensitive optical methods, chemiluminiscence is based on the reaction of luminol with H2O2 in basic solution in the presence of metal ions such as Fe(II), Cu(II), Co(II) and other metal ion catalysts [7]. Further chemiluminiscent methods were developed by the use of different oxidizing agents such as KIO4-K2CO3 [8]. Also attempts were made for the enhancement of chemuminiscent reaction by the use of p-iodopenol [9], gold nanoparticles [10], chitosan [11], resin [12] and DNAzyme [13]. Alternatively, fluorescent quantification has been applied to H2O2 based on the oxidation [14]. The generation of oxidized form can be measured by the fluorescent probes such as p-(hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid [15], ÃŽ ²- Cyclodextrin (CD)–hemin [16], N,N’-dicyanomethyl-o-phenylenediamine- hemin [17], Rhodamine B hydrazide-iron(III)-tetrasulfonatophthalocyanine [18], Fluorescein hydrazide [19], Haemin-L-tyrosine [20], Fluorescin [21], and ninhydrin [22]. Another approach was mainly based on the ROS fluorogenic reaction, which generally involves formation of oxidized forms which are highly fluorescent products [23-26]. There are also many spectrophotometric methods for the assay of H2O2 which are based on the oxidation and formation of the colored product. The spectrophotometry involves the methods based on guaiacol [27], 4-amino-5-(p-aminophenyl)-1-methyl-2-phenyl-pyrazol-3-one (DAP) N-ethyl-N-sulpho- propylaniline sodium salt (ALPS) [28], Phenol-AAP [29], Photofenton reaction-metavanadate [30], Fenton reaction [31], Pyrocatecol-aniline [32], H2O2-molybdate [33], Naphthalene-Agrocybe aegerita peroxidase [34], and phenol red-HRP [35]. The sensitivity of these optical methods can be further enhanced by the involvement of sequential flow injection analysis system. Principal investigator is interested to carry out modest research for the development of newer analytical procedures for the enzyme based substrate assay. Implementation of the project proposal involves of developing new reagents for the assay of peroxidase involving the use of amine, phenol related co-substrate assay for peroxidase. The main proposal of the research work will be dealt with alternative reagents to guaiacol, benzidine which are having it own disadvantages such as solubility in water, carcinogenic, economic viability. References: [1] C.L. Murrant, M.B. Reid, Detection of reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species in skeletal muscle, Microscopy Research and Technique, 55 (2001) 236-248. [2] M.P. Fink, Role of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in acute respiratory distress syndrome, Current Opinion in Critical Care, 8 (2002) 6-11. [3] D. Price, P.J. Worsfold, R.F. C. Mantoura, Hydrogen peroxide in the marine environment: cycling and methods of analysis, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 11 (1992) 379-384. [4] J.M. Anglada, P. Aplincourt, J.M. Bofill, D. Cremer, Atmospheric Formation of OH Radicals and H2O2 from Alkene Ozonolysis under Humid Conditions, ChemPhysChem, 3 (2002) 215-221. [5] M.C.Y. Chang, A. Pralle, E.Y. Isacoff, C.J. Chang, A Selective, Cell-Permeable Optical Probe for Hydrogen Peroxide in Living Cells, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 126 (2004) 15392-15393. [6] E.W. Miller, A.E. Albers, A. Pralle, E.Y. Isacoff, C.J. Chang, Boronate-Based Fluorescent Probes for Imaging Cellular Hydrogen Peroxide, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 127 (2005) 16652-16659. [7] D.A. Abramowicz, C.R. Keese, Enzyme-catalyzed reactions involving diphenyl carbonate, in, Google Patents, 1990. [8] M. Geiszt, T.L. Leto, The Nox Family of NAD(P)H Oxidases: Host Defense and Beyond, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 279 (2004) 51715-51718. [9] C. Laloi, K. Apel, A. Danon, Reactive oxygen signalling: the latest news, Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 7 (2004) 323-328. [10] D.J. Jamieson, Oxidative stress responses of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Yeast, 14 (1998) 1511-1527. [11] D. Harms, H. Luftmann, F.K. Muller, B. Krebs, U. Karst, Selective determination of hydrogen peroxide by adduct formation with a dinuclear iron(iii) complex and flow injection analysis/tandem mass spectrometry, Analyst, 127 (2002) 1410-1412. [12] A. Nogueira-Pedro, T.A.M. Cesario, C. Dias, C.S.T. Origassa, L.P.M. Eca, E. Paredes-Gamero, A. Ferreira, Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induces leukemic but not normal hematopoietic cell death in a dose-dependent manner, Cancer Cell International, 13 (2013) 123. [13] B. Halliwell, M.V. Clement, L.H. Long, Hydrogen peroxide in the human body, FEBS Letters, 486 (2000) 10-13. [14] E.A. Veal, A.M. Day, B.A. Morgan, Hydrogen Peroxide Sensing and Signaling, Molecular Cell, 26 (2007) 1-14. [15] A. Mendi, B. AslÄÂ ±m, Antioxidant Lactobacilli Could Protect Gingival Fibroblasts Against Hydrogen Peroxide: A Preliminary In Vitro Study, Probiotics Antimicro. Prot., (2014) 1-8. [16] B. Halliwell, J.M.C. Gutteridge, Oxygen free radicals and iron in relation to biology and medicine: Some problems and concepts, Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 246 (1986) 501-514. [17] S. Neill, R. Desikan, J. Hancock, Hydrogen peroxide signalling, Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 5 (2002) 388-395.

Education In Britain During The 18th Century :: essays research papers

Education in Britain during the Eighteenth Century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Britain now a days every child must go to school to further their education. However, it was not like that in the eighteenth century. The less fortunate were not as educated because they could not afford to have their children go to school. Girls had less of a chance to go to school than boys. But as the eighteenth century went on different types of schools were established for children, adolescents, and adults.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One type of these new schools were Charity schools. Charity schools were established in the beginning of the century. These schools were for boys and girls of the working lower class, The main idea was to teach these children religion, and how to read and write. The children were also taught thing that would benefit them as a social class; such as cobbling shoes, carpentry, and straw plaiting. On occasions the crafts that the children made were sold to help the school. By 1740 there were close to 2000 charity schools in england1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the summer Children would go to school from five or six in the morning to eight or nine at night. In the winter the day went from six or seven in the morning until seven or eight at night. Children did not have to go to school if they did not wish to. It was hard to get children from the countries to go to school due to the fact that their parents wanted them to stay at home in the fields helping to pay for their family income.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Around 1780 Sunday schools came around. Like Charity schools they taught religion. They started because many people believed that even overworked children deserved to get an education2.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another type of school that was established were the private schools. Private and â€Å"dissenting academies† existed for those who were excluded other schools3 due to their religious beliefs. Britain created a modern educational system that taught mainly commercial subjects for the boys; such as surveying, and European languages.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schools advertised and competed wish each other for students to come to their school. Schools would try and appear better by having plays and musical nights. Some schools even offered Military education. However, competitive sports did not exist in the eighteenth century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Around 1759 girls could finally go to school with the boys. However, their education was not thought to be important. Education In Britain During The 18th Century :: essays research papers Education in Britain during the Eighteenth Century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Britain now a days every child must go to school to further their education. However, it was not like that in the eighteenth century. The less fortunate were not as educated because they could not afford to have their children go to school. Girls had less of a chance to go to school than boys. But as the eighteenth century went on different types of schools were established for children, adolescents, and adults.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One type of these new schools were Charity schools. Charity schools were established in the beginning of the century. These schools were for boys and girls of the working lower class, The main idea was to teach these children religion, and how to read and write. The children were also taught thing that would benefit them as a social class; such as cobbling shoes, carpentry, and straw plaiting. On occasions the crafts that the children made were sold to help the school. By 1740 there were close to 2000 charity schools in england1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the summer Children would go to school from five or six in the morning to eight or nine at night. In the winter the day went from six or seven in the morning until seven or eight at night. Children did not have to go to school if they did not wish to. It was hard to get children from the countries to go to school due to the fact that their parents wanted them to stay at home in the fields helping to pay for their family income.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Around 1780 Sunday schools came around. Like Charity schools they taught religion. They started because many people believed that even overworked children deserved to get an education2.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another type of school that was established were the private schools. Private and â€Å"dissenting academies† existed for those who were excluded other schools3 due to their religious beliefs. Britain created a modern educational system that taught mainly commercial subjects for the boys; such as surveying, and European languages.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schools advertised and competed wish each other for students to come to their school. Schools would try and appear better by having plays and musical nights. Some schools even offered Military education. However, competitive sports did not exist in the eighteenth century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Around 1759 girls could finally go to school with the boys. However, their education was not thought to be important.

Lou Cannons Reagan :: essays research papers

Book Review – Reagan by Lou Cannon Preliminary Information   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book is titled Reagan. Lou Cannon is the author. There are 464 pages in the book, and it was published in 1982. Subject Matter/Topic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Reagan is a biography of former president Ronald Reagan, the 40th president of the United States. The book discusses in detail all the events of his life, from his birth to his election to presidency. Point of View   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cannon writes in the third person, largely objective narrator. He is writing not from the point of view of a Reagan supporter or and employee of his administration, but from the perspective of an objective reporter. Cannon was the White House corespondent for The Washington Post. Most of the book Cannon merely tells the facts of Reagan’s life without throwing in any of his own thoughts. While Reagan mostly deals with the positive aspects of Reagan’s life, Cannon doesn’t shy away from talking about the negative parts of his life, such as his firing from his radio announcing job. Cannon also discusses Reagan’s many failures as an actor, while at the same time mentioning his successes too. Cannon writes about his political defeats, such as his failure to win nomination for president in 1976, while also writing about his many political victories, such as being elected governor of California, and President of the United States. Overall, Cann on writes with a detached, objective point of view. He balances all of the positives and negatives of Reagan’s life, giving equal time to each. Summary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Reagan is an in-depth biography of Ronald Reagan. This definitive biography explores every aspect of Reagan’s life, and all of his successes and failures. The overriding theme in the book is that of Reagan’s determination and never give up attitude.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cannon begins the book by discussing Reagan’s humble beginnings. He was born in the front bedroom of a five-bedroom flat above the general store where his father worked, near Tampico, Illinois. He spent his childhood in a succession of small Indiana towns. His family was very poor, but not quite living in poverty. They came close to being crushed by the Depression. His father, Jack Reagan, was an Irish-Catholic, but only their first son, Ronald’s brother Neil, was baptized a Catholic. Jack was a hard-worker, but struggled with alcoholism throughout his life. His mother Nelle was a very moral and dignified woman. She encouraged her children to get a good education so they could have a better life. Lou Cannon's Reagan :: essays research papers Book Review – Reagan by Lou Cannon Preliminary Information   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book is titled Reagan. Lou Cannon is the author. There are 464 pages in the book, and it was published in 1982. Subject Matter/Topic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Reagan is a biography of former president Ronald Reagan, the 40th president of the United States. The book discusses in detail all the events of his life, from his birth to his election to presidency. Point of View   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cannon writes in the third person, largely objective narrator. He is writing not from the point of view of a Reagan supporter or and employee of his administration, but from the perspective of an objective reporter. Cannon was the White House corespondent for The Washington Post. Most of the book Cannon merely tells the facts of Reagan’s life without throwing in any of his own thoughts. While Reagan mostly deals with the positive aspects of Reagan’s life, Cannon doesn’t shy away from talking about the negative parts of his life, such as his firing from his radio announcing job. Cannon also discusses Reagan’s many failures as an actor, while at the same time mentioning his successes too. Cannon writes about his political defeats, such as his failure to win nomination for president in 1976, while also writing about his many political victories, such as being elected governor of California, and President of the United States. Overall, Cann on writes with a detached, objective point of view. He balances all of the positives and negatives of Reagan’s life, giving equal time to each. Summary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Reagan is an in-depth biography of Ronald Reagan. This definitive biography explores every aspect of Reagan’s life, and all of his successes and failures. The overriding theme in the book is that of Reagan’s determination and never give up attitude.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cannon begins the book by discussing Reagan’s humble beginnings. He was born in the front bedroom of a five-bedroom flat above the general store where his father worked, near Tampico, Illinois. He spent his childhood in a succession of small Indiana towns. His family was very poor, but not quite living in poverty. They came close to being crushed by the Depression. His father, Jack Reagan, was an Irish-Catholic, but only their first son, Ronald’s brother Neil, was baptized a Catholic. Jack was a hard-worker, but struggled with alcoholism throughout his life. His mother Nelle was a very moral and dignified woman. She encouraged her children to get a good education so they could have a better life.